"제1장 작전의 기초" 5/6 전쟁: WAR AND WARFARE

전쟁 : WAR AND WARFARE


이제 우리는 "기술만으로는 충분하지 않다"는 또 다른 지혜의 목소리가 필요합니다. 전쟁은 하나의 큰 공학적 프로젝트가 아니다. 저편에는 우리가 측정하려고 하지 않았던 힘과 의지를 가진 사람들이 있다. 그 결과, 우리는 자신이 의도한 것보다 크고, 확실히 파멸적인 호전적 행동으로 끌려갔다. 상대를 이해하지 않고 싸우는 것은 결국 군대의 명성에도 국가의 명성에도 공헌하지 않는다.
바바라 W. 탁맨

1-26. 전쟁(war)이란 다른 국가, 국가와 같은 존재 또는 무장 집단 사이에서 정책적 목표를 달성하기 위해 무력 충돌이 일어나는 상태를 말한다. 전쟁(war)은 국지적, 지역적, 또는 지구적 규모로 국가간에 싸워진다. 전쟁(war)은 국가 내에서는 중앙정부가 반란군, 분리주의자, 저항세력과 싸워질 수 있다. 반자치지역 무장집단도 목표를 달성하기 위해 전쟁(war)을 싸운다. 전쟁(war)에는, 대규모 군사력끼리의 격렬한 충돌(때로는 공식적인 선전 포고에 뒷받침된 것)으로부터, 폭력의 역치를 간헐적으로 넘는 미묘한 적대 행위까지 있다.

1-27. 전쟁(war)의 목표는 정책적 목표를 추구하기 위해 국가 또는 집단의 의지를 적에게 밀어붙이는 것이다. 의미, 육군은 군사 능력을 어떻게 사용하는지를 바꾸는 것이다. 전쟁의 본질, 그 원칙, 그리고 그 요소는 언제나 일관되고 있다. 변화를 반영한다.

1-28. 육군의 멀티도메인 작전 컨셉은 전쟁의 불변의 본질과 변화하는 싸움의 성질을 고려하고 있다. 특질을 고려하여 육군이 경쟁의 연속체(competition continuum) 속에서 어떻게 작전하는지를 인도하는 것이다.

・ 전쟁(war)의 본질
・ 전쟁(war)의 원칙
・ 전쟁(warfare)의 특질
· 전쟁 (warfare) 방법
· 공격, 방어, 안정화
· 대규모 전투 작전
・ 제병협동
・ 전쟁(warfare)의 레벨
· 육군의 전략적 맥락
· 획득한 성과의 통합
(멀티 도메인 작전의 개념에 대해서는 3장 참조).

전쟁의 본질: THE NATURE OF WAR
1-29. 전쟁(war)이라는 단어는 문맥에 의해 다양하게 사용되지만(예를 들어, 마약전쟁이나 빈곤과의 전쟁), 군사적 맥락에서의 전쟁을 다른 인간 활동과 구별하는 것은 정치적 목적을 달성하기 위한 폭력의 위협과 사용이다. 이 구별은 육군의 전쟁관의 3가지 요소를 설명하는 것이다.

· 정치적 목적을 달성하기 위해 싸운다.
· 인간의 노력.
· 본질적으로 혼란스럽고 불확실한 것

참고: 전쟁( war ) 는 정의상 적어도 두 개의 대립하는 측면을 포함한다. 그러나 정치적 이익을 얻기 위한 폭력이 전쟁을 일으키는 것은 아니다. , 중대한 군사적 반응을 일으키지 않는 새로운 유형의 폭력 (정부, 경제 기관, 민간 산업, 인프라에 대한 우주 및 사이버 공간의 공격을 포함)을 부과하고있다. 는 스스로를 적국과 전쟁 상태에 있다고 보고 있지만, 적국은 그렇지 않다. 참으면서 효과적인 대응이 불가능할 때까지 천천히 이익을 양도해 나갈지도 모른다. .

정치적 목적: 정치적 목적
1-30. 미국의 모든 군사작전은 국가정책목표를 달성하거나 이에 공헌하는 공통의 목적을 가진다. (war)는 항상 정책에 종속되어 정치적 목표에 봉사해야 한다. 다는 원하는 정책 성과를 달성하기 위한 전략을 수립한다. 안전을 확보하는 국가의 능력에 관계한다 (전쟁의 원칙의 논의에 대해서는 부록 A를 참조).


중략

1-77. 육군은 작전 기간 중 지속적으로 획득한 성과를 집약·강화(consolidate gains) 해야 하지만 대규모 전투작전이 끝나면 이익의 확정이 육군의 전체적인 초점이 된다. 를 유지하려고 하기 위해 육군은 수년에 걸쳐 과거 분쟁으로 획득한 성과를 집약·강화한다(consolidate gains) 일이 있다. 위기 시에는 육군부대는 특정한 적대자에 대한 상대적 우위성을 유지하기 위해 어떠한 이익이라도 다시 위기가 찾아오지 않도록 통합하려고 한다.
 


원문

WAR AND WARFARE
[W]e now need another voice of wisdom to tell us, “Technology is not enough.” War is not one big engineering project. There are people on the other side—with strengths and will that we never bothered to measure. As a result of that omission we have been drawn into a greater, and certainly more ruinous, belligerent action than we intended. To fight without understanding the opponent ultimately serves neither the repute of the military nor the repute of the nation.
Barbara W. Tuchman

1-26. War is a state of armed conflict between different nations, state-like entities, or armed groups to achieve policy objectives. Wars are fought between nations locally, regionally, or on a global scale. Wars are fought within a nation by a central government against insurgent, separatist, or resistance groups. Armed groups in semiautonomous regions also fight wars to achieve their objectives. Wars range from intense clashes between large military forces—sometimes backed by an official declaration of war—to more subtle hostilities that intermittingly breach the threshold of violence.
1- 27. The object of war is to impose a nation’s or group’s will on its enemy in pursuit of policy objectives. Regardless of the specific objectives, the decision to wage war represents a major policy decision and changes how Army forces use military capabilities. The nature of war, its principles, and its elements remain consistent over time. However, warfare, the conduct and characteristics of war, reflects changing means and contexts.
1- 28. The Army’s multidomain operations concept accounts for the constant nature of war and the changing character of warfare. Its balanced approach guides how Army forces operate across the competition continuum given the prevailing characteristics of anticipated operational environments now and in the near future. Doctrine for the conduct of operations begins with a view of war and warfare that includes the—
•Nature of war.
•Principles of war.
•Characteristics of warfare.
•Methods of warfare.
•Offense, defense, and stability.
•Large-scale combat operations.
•Combined arms.
•Levels of warfare.
•Army strategic contexts.
•Consolidating gains.
(See Chapter 3 for more information on the multidomain operations concept.)
THE NATURE OF WAR
1- 29. While the term war has multiple uses depending on the context (for example, the war on drugs or the war on poverty), it is the threat or use of violence to achieve political purposes that distinguishes war in the military context from other human activities. This distinction accounts for three elements of the Army’s view of war. War is—
•Fought to achieve a political purpose.
•A human endeavor.
•Inherently chaotic and uncertain.
Note. War, by definition, includes at least two opposing sides. However, not all violence for political gain causes a war. For example, in the current security environment China imposes low levels of violence and new types of violence (including space and cyberspace attacks against government, economic institutions, private industry, and infrastructure) that do not trigger significant military responses. In these cases, China sees itself in a state of war with its adversaries, but its adversaries do not. Such a disparity in perspective is dangerous for those nations opposing China that may endure low levels of violence for long periods, while slowly ceding interests until it is too late to respond effectively. Responding to such situations requires a comprehensive government approach supported by joint and Army forces.
Political Purpose
1-30. All U.S. military operations share a common purpose—to achieve or contribute to national policy objectives. As a principle of war, objective reinforces the proper relationship between military operations and policy. War must always be subordinate to policy and serve a political end. In conjunction with political leaders, military leaders develop strategies to achieve the desired policy outcomes. Policy outcomes often relate to the nation’s ability to influence, control, or secure populations, civil infrastructure, natural resources, and access to global commons in all domains. (See Appendix A for a discussion of the principles of war.)
Objective—to direct every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable goal—is a principle of war.
Human Endeavor
1- 31. War is shaped by human nature and the complex interrelationships of cognition, emotion, and uncertainty. National sentiments are often targets to be affected or manipulated by one or both sides. Values and ethics are some of the cognitive factors that motivate both the cause for going to war and restrictions in the conduct of war. Fear, passion, camaraderie, grief, and many more emotions affect the resolve of a war’s participants. They affect the behavior of combatants, including how and when leaders decide to persevere and when to give up. Individuals react differently to the stress of war; an act that may break the will of one enemy may only serve to stiffen the resolve of another. Human will, instilled through commitment to a cause and leadership, is the driving force of all action in war. The human dimension infuses war with its intangible moral factors. (See paragraphs 1-115 through 1-117 for more information on the human dimension.)
Inherently Chaotic and Uncertain
1- 32. War is inherently chaotic and uncertain due to the clash of wills and intense interaction of innumerable factors. Orders are misunderstood, enemy forces do the unexpected, units make wrong turns, unforeseen obstacles appear, the weather changes, and units consume supplies at unexpected rates. This friction affects all military operations, and it must be anticipated by leaders. The chaotic nature of war makes discerning the precise cause and effect of actions difficult, impossible, or delayed. The unintended effects of operations are difficult to anticipate and identify. Such chaos imposes a great deal of uncertainty on all operations and drives the importance of leaders who are skilled at assuming risk.
PRINCIPLES OF WAR
1- 33. From a U.S. military perspective, war involves nine principles, collectively and classically known as the principles of war. The nine principles of war represent the most important factors that affect the conduct of operations, and they are derived from the study of history and experience in battle. (See table 1-1 on page 1-8 for a concise listing of the principles of war.) 
1- 34. The principles of war capture broad and enduring fundamentals for the employment of forces in combat. They are not a checklist that guarantees success. Rather, they summarize considerations commanders and their staffs account for during successful operations, applied with judgment in specific contexts. While applicable to all operations, they do not apply equally or in the same way to every situation. (For more information on the principles of war, see Appendix A.)
Table 1-1. Principles of war
Maneuver: Place the enemy in a position of disadvantage through the flexible application of combat power.
Objective: Direct every military operation toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable goal.
Offensive: Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.
Surprise: Strike at a time and place or in a manner for which the enemy is unprepared.
Economy of force: Expend minimum-essential combat power on secondary efforts to allocate the maximum possible combat power on the main effort.
Mass: Concentrate the effects of combat power at the most advantageous place and time to produce decisive results.
Unity of command: Ensure unity of effort under one responsible commander for every objective.
Security: Prevent the enemy from achieving surprise or acquiring unexpected advantage.
Simplicity: Increase the probability that plans can be executed as intended by preparing clear, uncomplicated plans and orders.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WARFARE
1- 35. Warfare, the conduct and characteristics of war, is affected by changes in technology, national policy, operational concepts, public opinion, and many other factors. Warfare may retain similarities over time, but it inevitably also has great variations. Rapid advances in, and the proliferation of, air, space, and cyberspace capabilities with military applications are changing warfare. Space technology enables persistent overhead surveillance and global communications, navigation, timing, missile warning, and environmental monitoring. Cyberspace technology is integrated into most military capabilities, and it enables near-instantaneous communications and information sharing, creating both opportunities and vulnerabilities that can be exploited by both sides during competition, crisis, and conflict.
METHODS OF WARFARE
1- 36. Although the nature and principles of war reflect the continuity of war, the conduct of warfare, like dynamic operational environments, reflects wide variation. Therefore, depending on the situation, strategic actors pursue their objectives in war through different methods of warfare. There are many different methods, but they generally fall into two broad categories: conventional and irregular. Each method of warfare serves the same strategic purpose—to defeat an enemy—but they take fundamentally different approaches to achieving their purpose. Both methods share one characteristic, which is that they involve the use of lethal force to achieve a political end. Warfare rarely fits neatly into any of these subjective categories, and it almost always entails a blend of both methods over the course of a conflict.
Note. These broad categories describe the overall approaches to warfare. Other categories attempt to describe the dominant means used in a particular application, for example “information warfare,” “cyber warfare,” or “anti-submarine warfare,” In these cases, the terms “warfare,” “operations,” and “activities” are often used interchangeably.
Conventional Warfare
1-37. Conventional warfare is a violent struggle for domination between nation-states or coalitions of nation-states. Conventional warfare is generally carried out by two or more military forces through armed conflict. It is commonly known as conventional warfare because it means to fight enemy forces directly, with comparable military systems and organizations. A nation-state’s strategic purpose for conducting conventional warfare is to impose its will on an enemy government and avoid imposition of the enemy government’s will on it and its citizens. Joint doctrine refers to conventional warfare as “traditional” because it has been understood that way in the West since the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which reserved, for the nation-tate alone, a monopoly on the legitimate use of force. However, irregular warfare has a longer history, and it has been just as common as the “traditional” method of warfare in some societies.
1- 38. Conventional warfare normally focuses on defeating enemy armed forces, enemy warfighting capabilities, and controlling key terrain and populations to decisively influence an enemy government’s behavior in favorable ways. During conventional warfare, enemies engage in combat openly against each other and generally employ similar capabilities. Conventional war may escalate to include nation-state use of weapons of mass destruction. Like the other branches of the armed forces, the Army is organized, trained, and equipped primarily to conduct or deter conventional warfare, especially its most lethal manifestation— large-scale combat operations.
1-39. Conventional deterrence creates the paradox that although combat-ready forces reduce the probability of large-scale combat, they increase the frequency of adversaries pursuing irregular warfare and malign activity short of armed conflict to achieve objectives. The tradeoff is acceptable because conducting irregular warfare with forces prepared for large-scale ground combat incurs less risk than conducting large-scale ground combat with forces unprepared to do so.
Irregular Warfare
1-40. Irregular warfare is the overt, clandestine, and covert employment of military and non-military capabilities across multiple domains by state and non-state actors through methods other than military domination of an adversary, either as the primary approach or in concert with conventional warfare. Irregular warfare may include the use of indirect military activities to enable partners, proxies, or surrogates to achieve shared or complementary objectives. The main objective of irregular warfare varies with the political context, and it can be successful without being combined with conventional warfare (for example, the Cuban Revolution). While it often focuses on establishing influence over a population, irregular warfare has also historically been an economy of force effort to fix enemy forces in secondary theaters of conflict or to cause enemy leaders to commit significant forces to less critical lines of effort. Two characteristics distinguish irregular warfare from conventional warfare:
•The intent is to erode a political authority’s legitimacy and influence or to exhaust its resources and will—not to defeat its armed forces—while supporting the legitimacy, influence, and will of friendly entities engaged in the struggle.
•The nonmilitary instruments of power are more prominent because the military instrument of power alone is insufficient to achieve desired objectives.
1- 41. JFCs can employ most Army forces and capabilities during irregular warfare. Certain forces and capabilities are irregular warfare focused (for example Army special operations forces), in that they are specifically designed and organized for irregular warfare, but they can also be employed effectively in conventional warfare (for example as combat advisors to host-nation forces). Other forces are irregular warfare capable, in that they are primarily designed and organized for conventional warfare, but they can also be employed effectively in irregular warfare. Historically, the overwhelming majority of Army forces employed to conduct irregular warfare have been conventional forces.
OFFENSE, DEFENSE, AND STABILITY
1- 42. Offense, defense, and stability are inherent elements of conventional and irregular warfare. Divisions and higher echelons typically perform some combination of all three elements in their operations simultaneously. However, the lower the echelon, the more likely it is for that formation to be focused on one element at a time.
1-43. An offensive operation is an operation to defeat or destroy enemy forces and gain control of terrain, resources, and population centers (ADP 3-0). Offensive operations are how commanders impose their will on an enemy. The offense is the most direct means of seizing, retaining, and exploiting the initiative to gain a physical and psychological advantage. Offensive operations typically include a sudden action directed toward enemy weaknesses, capitalizing on speed, surprise, and shock. The offense compels an enemy force to react, creating new or larger weaknesses the attacking force can exploit. (See ADP 3-90 for a detailed discussion of the offense.)
1- 44. A defensive operation is an operation to defeat an enemy attack, retain key terrain, gain time, and develop conditions favorable for offensive or stability operations (ADP 3-0). Normally the defense cannot achieve a decisive victory. However, it sets conditions for a counteroffensive or a counterattack that enables forces to regain the initiative. Defensive operations are a counter to an enemy offensive action, and they seek to destroy as many of the enemy forces as possible. Defensive operations preserve control over land, resources, and populations, and they protect lines of communications and critical capabilities against attack. Commanders can conduct defensive operations in one area to free forces for offensive operations elsewhere. (See ADP 3-90 for a detailed discussion of the defense.)
1- 45. A stability operation is an operation conducted outside the United States in coordination with other instruments of national power to establish or maintain a secure environment and provide essential governmental services, emergency infrastructure reconstruction, and humanitarian relief (ADP 3-0). These operations support governance by a host nation, an interim government, or a military government. Stability involves coercive and constructive action. (See ADP 3-07 for more information on stability operations.)
LARGE-SCALE COMBAT OPERATIONS
1-46. The focus of Army readiness is on large-scale combat operations. Large-scale combat operations are extensive joint combat operations in terms of scope and size of forces committed, conducted as a campaign aimed at achieving operational and strategic objectives (ADP 3-0). During ground combat, they typically involve operations by multiple corps and divisions, and they typically include substantial forces from the joint and multinational team. Large-scale combat operations often include both conventional and irregular forces on both sides.
1-47. Conflicts encompassing large-scale combat operations are more intense and destructive than limited contingencies, often rapidly amassing heavy casualties. Peer threats employ networks of sensors and long- range massed fires that exploit electromagnetic signatures and other detection methods to create high risk for ground forces, particularly when they are static. Army forces must account for constant enemy observation, including the threat from unmanned systems that saturate the operational environment. Army forces take measures to defeat the enemy’s ability to effectively mass effects while creating exploitable advantages to mass effects against enemy capabilities and formations.
1- 48. Urban areas are high risk areas that are a factor in many operational environments. Avoiding urban areas during large-scale combat through deception or other means is ideal, but generally not possible. Commanders may conduct urban operations because they provide a tactical, political, or economic advantage, or when not doing so threatens the joint campaign. Army forces conduct large-scale combat operations in urban areas either as specific, unique operations, or more typically, as one of a larger series of operations in a joint campaign. Urban operations focus on the threat to or within the urban area and allow other forces to conduct operations elsewhere. Conducting operations in dense urban terrain is complex and resource intensive. Combined arms operations that integrate joint capabilities, allies and partners, and conventional and irregular forces are essential to success. Commanders voice concern to higher headquarters when they do not have sufficient forces for the task issued, and they must arrange their forces and operations according to purpose, time, and space to accomplish the mission. Success in defeating enemy forces in large urban areas typically requires the ability to isolate them from physical, information, and human support. (See ATP 3-06 for more information on urban operations.) During large-scale combat operations, Army forces focus on the defeat and destruction of enemy ground forces as part of the joint team, and they contribute to the defeat of forces in other domains. Army forces close with and destroy enemy forces in all types of terrain, exploit success, and break the enemy’s will to resist. Army forces attack, defend, perform stability tasks, and continuously consolidate gains to accomplish objectives that support a desirable political outcome. Corps and divisions are the formations central to the conduct of large-scale combat. The ability to prevail in ground combat is a decisive factor in breaking an enemy’s capability and will to continue a conventional conflict. Conflict resolution requires Army forces to consolidate gains with unified action partners as long as necessary to accomplish national objectives.
1-49. Planning for large-scale combat operations must account for possible enemy use of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) weapons and allied retaliatory response options. Planning must also account for toxic industrial hazards caused by combat operations. Enemy employment of CBRN weapons and the allied response would affect all domains, but they present disproportionate effects in the land domain. Some adversaries plan for the employment of nuclear and chemical weapons by incorporating them into their doctrine and training, and they maintain delivery systems for their employment on the battlefield. Furthermore, the use of these weapons does not terminate a conflict and may cause it to escalate. Units must be prepared to operate in, around, and through contaminated environments. This is fundamental to deterring adversaries from employing weapons of mass destruction. CBRN considerations should inform both operational planning and force readiness. (See FM 3-11 for doctrine on operating in a CBRN environment, and see ATP 3-72 for more information operations in a nuclear environment.)
COMBINED ARMS
1- 50. Combined arms is the synchronized and simultaneous application of arms to achieve an effect greater than if each element was used separately or sequentially (ADP 3-0). Leaders combine arms in complementary and reinforcing ways to protect capabilities and amplify their effects. Confronted with a constantly changing situation, leaders create new combinations of capabilities, methods, and effects to pose new dilemmas for adversaries. The combined arms approach to operations during competition, crisis, and armed conflict is foundational to exploiting capabilities from all domains and their dimensions.
1- 51. Complementary capabilities compensate for the vulnerabilities of one system or organization with the capabilities of a different one. Infantry protects tanks from enemy infantry and antitank systems, while tanks provide mobile protected firepower for the infantry. Ground maneuver can make enemy forces displace and become vulnerable to joint fires, while joint fires can disrupt enemy reserves and C2 to enable operations on the ground. Cyberspace and space capabilities and electromagnetic warfare can prevent enemy forces from detecting and communicating the location of friendly land-based fires capabilities, and Army fires capabilities can destroy enemy ground-based cyberspace nodes and electromagnetic warfare platforms to protect friendly communications.
1- 52. Reinforcing capabilities combine similar systems or capabilities to amplify the overall effects a formation brings to bear in a particular context. During urban operations, for example, infantry, aviation, and armor units working in close coordination reinforce the protection, maneuver, and direct fire capabilities of each unit type while creating cascading dilemmas for enemy forces. Army artillery can be reinforced by close air support, air interdiction, and naval surface fire support, greatly increasing both the mass and range of fires available to a commander. Space and cyberspace capabilities used to disrupt enemy communications can reinforce a brigade combat team’s (BCT’s) ground-based jamming effort to increase the disruption to enemy C2. Military information support operations can amplify the effects of physical isolation on an enemy echelon, making it more vulnerable to friendly force exploitation.
1- 53. The organic composition, training, and task organization of Army units set conditions for effective combined arms. Throughout operations, commanders assess the operational environment and adjust priorities, change task organization, and request capabilities to create exploitable advantages, extend operational reach, preserve combat power, and accomplish missions.
LEVELS OF WARFARE
1- 54. The levels of warfare are a framework for defining and clarifying the relationship among national objectives, the operational approach, and tactical tasks (ADP 1-01). While the various methods of warfare are ultimately expressed in concrete military action, the four levels of warfare—national strategic, theater strategic, operational, and tactical—link tactical actions to achievement of national objectives as shown in figure 1-2.

Figure 1-2. Levels of warfare
1-55. The levels of warfare distinguish four broad overlapping activities—providing national direction and creating national strategy (national strategic), conducting continuous theater campaigning (theater strategic); planning and conducting campaigns and major operations (operational); or planning and executing operations, battles, engagements, and actions (tactical). Some commanders act at more than one level of war. For example, a combatant commander (CCDR) formulates theater strategy and designs the campaign plan. A land component commander assists a CCDR in campaign design and may lead a field army during major operations. The levels of warfare are conceptual, without finite limits or boundaries. They do, however, correlate to specific activities and responsibilities. They help commanders visualize the relationships and actions required to link strategic objectives, military operations at various echelons, and tactical actions. Among the levels of warfare, planning horizons, methods, and products differ greatly. Without this context, tactical operations become disconnected from operational end states and strategic objectives. There are skills and practices related to strategic, theater strategic, operational, and tactical level that differ from each other and are enhanced by specific training and education.
National Strategic Level of Warfare
1- 56. The national strategic level of warfare is the level of warfare at which the U.S. government formulates policy goals and ways to achieve them by synchronizing action across government and unified action partners and employing the instruments of national power. The instruments of national power are all of the means available to the government in its pursuit of national objectives, expressed as diplomatic, economic, informational, and military. The national strategic level of warfare focuses on developing global strategy and providing global strategic direction. Strategic direction provides context, tasks, and purpose for the employment of the instruments of national power. The specifics of strategic direction address long-term, emerging, and anticipatory issues or concerns that may quickly evolve due to rapidly changing circumstances. Strategic direction is always evolving and adapting.
1- 57. The theater strategic level of warfare is the level of warfare at which combatant commanders synchronize with unified action partners and employ all elements of national power to fulfill policy aims within the assigned theater in support of the national strategy. Based on strategic guidance, CCDRs with assigned areas of responsibility and staffs—with input from subordinate commands, including theater armies and supporting commands and agencies—update their strategic estimates and develop theater strategies. A theater strategy is an overarching construct outlining a combatant commander’s vision for integrating and synchronizing military activities and operations with the other instruments of national power to achieve national strategic objectives. The theater strategy prioritizes the ends, ways, and means within the limitations established by the budget, global force management processes, and strategic guidance. The theater strategy serves as the basis for development of the combatant command campaign plan (CCP).
Operational Level of Warfare
1- 58. The operational level of warfare is the level of warfare in which campaigns and operations are planned, conducted, and sustained to achieve operational objectives to support achievement of strategic objectives (JP 3-0). The operational level links the employment of tactical forces to the achievement of strategic objectives.
1- 59. The operational level of warfare generally is the realm of combatant commands and their Service or functional components and subordinate joint task force (JTF) headquarters and their Service or functional components. This includes the theater army headquarters as the Army Service component to a combatant command and any other echelon operating as an ARFOR, JTF headquarters, or land component command. The focus at this level is on operational art—the design of campaigns and operations by integrating ends, ways, and means, while accounting for risk. (See ADP 3-0 for more information on operational art.)
1- 60. Actions at the operational level of warfare usually involve broader aspects of time and space than tactical actions. The theater army’s activities continuously support the CCDR in shaping the operational and strategic situation. Operational-level commanders need to understand the complexities of the operational environment and look beyond the immediate situation. Operational-level commanders seek to create the most favorable conditions possible for subordinate commanders by preparing for future events.
1- 61. The operational level of warfare demands leaders with a unique set of skills. Because the operational level is fundamentally about linking tactical action to strategic objectives, leaders must understand both strategy and tactics. They must have some expertise in the capabilities and operations of all Services and components and those of allies and partners. Leaders at the operational level must be able to assess large, complex operational environments and be expert planners. They must understand the application of warfighting functions on a large scale and how this application differs from application at the tactical level. The elements of operational art help operational leaders understand, visualize, and describe their campaigns and major operations. (See ADP 3-0 for details on the elements of operational art.)
Tactical Level of Warfare
1- 62. The tactical level of warfare is the level of warfare at which forces plan and execute battles and engagements to achieve military objectives (JP 3-0). Activities at this level focus on tactics—the employment, ordered arrangement, and directed actions of forces in relation to each other (ADP 3-90). Operational-level headquarters determine objectives and provide resources for tactical operations. Tactical-level commanders plan and execute operations to include battles, engagements, and small-unit actions.
1-63. Tactical- level combat operations rise to the level of battles or engagements. A battle is a set of related engagements that lasts longer and involves larger forces than an engagement (ADP 3-90). Battles can affect the course of a campaign or major operation, and they are typically conducted by corps and divisions over the course of days or months. An engagement is a tactical conflict, usually between opposing lower echelon maneuver forces (JP 3-0). Engagements are typically conducted at brigade echelons and below. They are usually short, executed in minutes or hours.
1- 64. The strategic and operational levels of warfare provide the context for tactical operations. Without this context, tactical operations devolve into a series of disconnected and unfocused actions. Likewise, tactical operations inform strategic and operational objectives, ensuring that those objectives remain tethered to reality and adjust, when necessary, according to the situation. Strategic and operational success is a measure of how the achievement of objectives in one or more battles contributes to winning a major operation or campaign. (See ADP 3-90 for more information on tactics.)
ARMY STRATEGIC CONTEXTS
1- 65. Joint doctrine describes the strategic environment in terms of a competition continuum. Rather than a world either at peace or at war, the competition continuum describes three broad categories of strategic relationships—cooperation, competition below armed conflict, and armed conflict. Each relationship is defined as between the United States and another strategic actor relative to a specific set of policy aims. Cooperation, competition, and even armed conflict commonly go on simultaneously in different parts of the world. Because of this, the needs of CCDRs and Army component commanders in one area are affected by the strategic needs of others. (See JP 3-0 for more information about the joint competition continuum.)
Note. This manual uses “competition” to mean “competition below armed conflict.”
1- 66. Although combatant commands and theater armies campaign across the competition continuum, Army tactical formations typically conduct operations within a context dominated by one strategic relationship at a time. Therefore, Army doctrine describes the strategic situation through three contexts in which Army forces conduct operations:
•Competition below armed conflict.
•Crisis.
•Armed conflict.
1- 67. The Army strategic contexts generally correspond to the joint competition continuum and the requirements of joint campaigns. Because cooperation is generally conducted with an ally or partner to counter an adversary or enemy, Army doctrine considers it part of competition. Army doctrine adds crisis to account for the unique challenges facing ground forces that often characterize transition between competition and armed conflict. (See figure 1-3 for an illustration of Army strategic contexts.)

Figure 1-3. Army strategic contexts and operational categories
Competition Below Armed Conflict
1-68. Competition below armed conflict exists when two or more state or non-state adversaries have incompatible interests, but neither seeks armed conflict. Nation-states compete with each other using all instruments of national power to gain and maintain advantages that help them achieve their goals. Low levels of lethal force can be a part of competition below armed conflict. Adversaries often employ cyberspace capabilities and information warfare to destroy or disrupt infrastructure, interfere with government processes, and conduct activities in a way that does not cause the United States and its allies to respond with force. Competition provides military forces time to prepare for armed conflict, opportunities to assure allies and partners of resolve and commitment, and time and space to set the necessary conditions to prevent crisis or conflict. Examples of competition include return of forces to Europe (known as REFORGER) exercises conducted during the Cold War, security assistance provided to Ukraine since 2014, and Pacific Pathways activities to improve readiness in the Indo-pacific region. (See Chapter 4 for a detailed discussion of Army forces during competition.)
Crisis
1- 69. A crisis is an emerging incident or situation involving a possible threat to the United States, its citizens, military forces, or vital interests that develops rapidly and creates a condition of such diplomatic, economic, or military importance that commitment of military forces and resources is contemplated to achieve national and/or strategic objectives (JP 3-0). Commanders have to consider the possibility that overt military action may escalate a crisis towards armed conflict. The use of space and cyberspace capabilities provides other options that are less likely to cause escalation. The context of crisis is relative to an adversary, which is different from crisis response, which can result from a natural or human disaster. During crisis, armed conflict has not yet occurred, but it is either imminent or a distinct possibility that requires rapid response by forces prepared to fight if deterrence fails.
Note. A crisis can be long in duration, but it can also reflect a near-simultaneous transition to armed conflict. Leaders do not assume that a crisis provides additional time for a transition to armed conflict.
1-70. Army forces contribute to joint operations, seeking to deter further provocation and compel an adversary to de-escalate aggression and return to competition under conditions acceptable for the United States and its allies or partners. Through rapid movement and integration with the joint force, Army forces help signal the readiness and willingness to prevail in combat operations. When authorized, Army forces can inform or influence perceptions about an operation’s goals and progress to amplify effects on the ground during a crisis; however, commanders ensure their message aligns with reality and that their narratives are truthful and credible.
1-71. Army forces help the joint force maintain freedom of action and associated positions of relative advantage through the activities they conduct and their presence on the ground. They operate in a way that disrupts adversary risk calculations about the cost of acting contrary to U.S. national interests, compels de- escalation, and fosters a return to competition conditions favorable to the United States. If deterrence fails to end a crisis, Army forces are better postured for operations during armed conflict. Examples of crisis include the Cuban missile crisis of 1962, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, North Korean missile and rocket provocations in 2017-2018, and the Russian attacks into Ukraine in 2014 and 2022. (See Chapter 5 for a detailed discussion of Army forces during crisis.)
Armed Conflict
1-72. Armed conflict occurs when a state or non- state actor uses lethal force as the primary means to satisfy its interests. Armed conflict can range from irregular warfare to conventional warfare and combinations of both. Entering into and terminating armed conflict is a political decision. Army forces may enter conflict with some advanced warning during a prolonged crisis or with little warning during competition. How well Army forces are prepared to enter into an armed conflict ultimately depends upon decisions and preparations made during competition and crisis.
1-73. At the onset of armed conflict, forward-positioned Army forces may defend key terrain or infrastructure while seeking opportunities to gain the initiative or reposition to more favorable locations with partner forces. Army forces help JFCs gain and maintain the initiative, defeat enemy forces on the ground, control territory and populations, and consolidate gains to establish conditions for a political settlement favorable to U.S. interests. Army forces provide landpower to the joint force and conduct limited contingency or large-scale combat operations to ensure enduring political outcomes favorable to U.S. interests. Examples of armed conflict include the Vietnam War, OPERATION DESERT STORM, and OPERATION INHERENT RESOLVE. (See Chapter 6 for a detailed discussion of Army forces conducting operations during armed conflict. See Chapter 7 for a discussion of Army forces in large-scale combat in maritime environments.)
CONSOLIDATING GAINS
1-74. Army commanders must exploit successful operations by continuously consolidating gains during competition, crisis, and armed conflict. Consolidate gains are activities to make enduring any initial operational success and to set the conditions for a sustainable security environment, allowing for a transition of control to other legitimate authorities (ADP 3-0). Consolidation of gains is an integral and continuous part of competition, and it is necessary for achieving success across the range of military operations. Successful consolidation of gains requires a realistic and pragmatic assessment of strategic conditions, ally and partner legitimacy, friendly and adversary relative advantages, and the viability of a sustainable political outcome. Operations to inform and influence foreign audiences also play a key role in achieving lasting outcomes.
1-75. During competition, Army forces may consolidate gains from previous conflicts for many years as JFCs seek to maintain relative advantages against a specific adversary and sustain enduring political outcomes. U.S. forces in Europe, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the Middle East remained in place for decades to consolidate gains made in earlier conflicts. Army forces also consolidate gains by continuously developing multinational interoperability and readiness for
large-scale combat operations.
1- 76. During armed conflict, Army forces deliberately plan to consolidate gains throughout an operation as part of defeating the enemy in detail to accomplish overall policy and strategic objectives. Early and effective consolidation activities are a form of exploitation performed while other operations are ongoing, and they enable the achievement of lasting favorable outcomes in the shortest time span. Tactical units consolidating on an objective can be the first step in consolidating gains. In some instances, Army forces will be the lead for integrating forces and synchronizing activities to consolidate gains. In other situations, Army forces will be in support of allies and partners. Army forces may consolidate gains for a sustained period over large land areas. Military governments in occupied territories stabilize civilian populations. Military authorities may temporarily govern areas until populations are stable enough for transition to legitimate civilian authorities. This transition of control to civil authorities reduces demands on combat power.
1-77. While Army forces must continuously consolidate gains throughout an operation, consolidating gains becomes the overall focus of Army forces when large-scale combat operations have concluded. During competition, Army forces may consolidate gains from previous conflicts for many years as JFCs seek to maintain relative advantages against a specific adversary. During crisis, Army forces seek to consolidate whatever gains are made relative to a specific adversary so that the crisis does not occur again.